Iran

, officially Islamic Republic of Iran, republic in southwestern Asia. Iran is borderedon the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea; on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan; on the south by the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf; and on the west by Iraq and Turkey. The area of Iran is about 1,648,000 sq km (about 636,000 sq mi). Until the 1930s Iran was known abroad as Persia. The capital and largest city is Tehran (Teheran).

Iran is one of the world's leading producers of petroleum. The country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by a shah from 1906 until 1979, when a popular uprising led by Islamic religious leaders resulted in the establishment of a republic.

Land and Resources

Most of Iran is made up of rugged terrain. The country contains enormous mineral wealth, much of which has yet to be exploited. Iran is subject to severe earthquakes, and the geologic instability has frequently resulted in major physical damage and great loss of life.

Physiographic Regions

Iran is dominated by a centralplateau, which is about 1200 m (about 4000 ft) high and is almostringed by mountain chains. In the north, paralleling the southernshore of the Caspian Sea , are the Elburz Mountains . The highest peak in Iran, Mount Dam a vand (5604 m/18,386 ft), is part of this mountainsystem. The Caspian Sea, at 28 m (92 ft) below sea level, is thelowest point in Iran. Along the western border the complex Zagros Mountains extend southeastto the region bordering the Persian Gulf . Mountains of lower elevation lie to the east of the central plateau. Except for the relatively fertile plateaus of the northern Iranian provinces of Azerbaijan, mountain soils are thin, heavily eroded, and infertile. The narrow Caspian coastal plain, in contrast, is covered with rich brown forest soil. The only other generally flat area is the plain of Kh u zest a n (Khuzistan) in the west.

Two great deserts extend over much of central Iran. The Dasht-e L u t is covered largely with sand and rocks, and the Dasht-e Kav ì r is covered mainly with salt. Both deserts are inhospitable and virtually uninhabited. In the winter and spring small streams flow into the Dasht-e Kav ì r, creating little lakes and swamps. In other times of the year both deserts are extremely arid.

Rivers and Lakes

Most of Iran's rivers flow onlyduring part of the year, when precipitation is heaviest. Thecountry's principal permanent rivers flow off the mountains onthe slopes facing the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, or the Gulfof Oman. The KarunRiver, flowing from the Zagros Mountains to the Shatt al Arab atKhorramshahr, is the country's main navigable river. Besides theCaspian Sea, Iran has few large lakes. Most shrink in size duringthe hot, dry summer and have a high salt content because theyhave no outlet to carry away the salt left when the waterevaporates. The largest water body entirely within Iran is Lake Urmia , in the northwest.

Climate

Iran is divided climatically into three main regions: the extremely hot coast along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; the temperate but arid central highland; and the tableland of the intensely cold Elburz Mountains. The average temperature range in Tehran on the interior plateau is -3° to 7° C (27° to 45° F) in January and 22° to 37° C (72° to 99° F) in July. The average range in A b a d a n on the Persian Gulf is 7° to 17° C (44° to 63° F) in January and 28° to 44° C (82° to 112° F) in July. Average annual precipitation in Tehr a n is about 250 mm (about 10 in), and in Abadan is less than 200 mm (less than 8 in).

Vegetation and Animal Life

On the semihumid plateaus of Iran, grass cover is used for grazing livestock. The Zagros Mountains have a semihumid forest cover dominated by oak, elm, pistachio, and walnut trees. On the seaward slopes of the Elburz Mountains and on the Caspian plain, vegetation is abundant. In these areas broadleaf deciduous trees such as ash, elm, oak, and beech flourish, along with some broadleaf evergreens, ferns, and shrubs. On the arid plateaus, scrub and cactus growth dominate.

Iran has a wide variety of native wildlife including the rabbit, fox, wolf, hyena, jackal, leopard, deer, porcupine, ibex, bear, badger, weasel, and tiger. Pheasants and partridges are found inland; pelicans and flamingos breed along the Persian Gulf. Sturgeon, whitefish, and herring inhabit the Caspian Sea.

Mineral Resources

Iran's most valuable mineral resources are its great deposits of petroleum and natural gas. The principal oil fields are in Khuzistan. Other mineral resources, including iron, copper, lead, zinc, coal, and chromite, are located in the Zagros and Elburz mountains and elsewhere.

Population

More than one-half (51 percent) of the people of Iran are Persians, the descendants of the original Indo-European peoples who entered the country from Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BC. The remainder of the population consists of Azeris (24 percent), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8 percent), Kurds (7 percent), and other groups including Arab (3 percent), Lur (2 percent), Baluchi (2 percent), and Turkmen (2 percent).

Population Characteristics

The population of Iran (1995 estimate) is about 66,720,000. The average density is about 40 persons per sq km (about 105 per sq mi), but concentrations are much higher in the northern and western parts of the country. The population is about 60 percent urban, and the proportion of city dwellers increased in the 1970s and 1980s. The birthrate declined much less steeply than the death rate between the mid-1960s and the mid-1990s; during the mid-1990s Iran had a relatively high annual rate of population increase of about 2.7 percent.

Principal Cities

The capital and largest city ofIran is Tehran, with a population of 6,042,584 in 1986.The country's two most important urban centers, after Tehran, are Mashhad(1,463,508), a grain center and important commercial andtransportation point, and E s fah a n (986,753), an industrial and commercial hub noted for its fine architecture.

Language

The official language of Iran isModern Persian, or Farsi, one of the Indo-Iranian languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European languages. Farsiemerged from Middle Persian (see Persian Language) and is written in the Arabic alphabet (see Arabic Language: Arabic Script )with many Arabic loan words. Several minority groups in Iranretain their own languages. See also Arabic Literature; Persian Literature .

Religion

The official religion of Iran isthe Shiite branch of Islam, which is followed by more than 95percent of the population. Some of the most sacred Shiite placesare in Iran; the city of Qom (Qum), south of Tehr a n, is a noted place of pilgrimage. Sunni Muslims form about 4 percent of Iran's population, and the country also has dwindling communities of Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Bahais, all of which face a degree of governmental repression.

Ethnic Minorities

The periphery of Iran is inhabited by ethnic minorities, who at times have been perceived to hold greater allegiance to their individual ethnic groups than to the national government. The Baluchi in the southeast, the Turkmen in the northeast, and the Kurds in the west are Sunni Muslims. Arabs inhabit the southwest. The Azeris, although they are Shiites, came into conflict with the politically active Iranian Shiite clergy in the late 1970s and the 1980s, but at other times have found common cause with Iran.

Education and Cultural Activity

Following the change in government in 1979, Iran's educational system and its cultural life were altered to conform with precepts of Shiite Islam. Approaches borrowed from the West were not allowed to continue.

Education

Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 10; enforcement has been lax, however, because of a shortage of teachers and schools and the instability caused by the war with Iraq in the 1980s. About 66 percent of the population age 15 or older was literate in the early 1990s. At that time, about 9.9 million pupils attended primary schools each year, and some 6 million students were enrolled annually in secondary schools. In addition, teacher-training and vocational schools together had about 328,000 students yearly. Higher education is provided by some 29 universities, which had an aggregate yearly enrollment of about 283,700 students in the early 1990s. Major institutions included the University of Tehr a n (1932), the University of E s fah a n (1950), and the University of Sh ì r a z (1945). Some universities were closed or renamed in the early 1980s.

Culture

The culture of Iran is heavilyinfluenced by the Muslim religion, as is evident in the art,literature, and social structure of the country. After the 1979government change, the Shiite clergy led a drive for renewedIslamization. Women were ordered to return to more traditionalroles, movie theaters were closed, and radio stations wereprohibited from broadcasting music. The segregation of men andwomen at social functions was reinstituted. Many women again worethe traditional chador, a long black cloth that is drapedover the head and body. See also Iranian Art and Architecture; Arab Music .

Cultural Institutions

Iran has a number of notable museums. These include the Iran Bastan Museum, with displays on archaeology, and the Negarestan Museum, with exhibits of Iranian art, both in Tehr a n; the Qom Museum; and the Pars Museum, in Sh ì r a z. The National Library is in Tehr a n, and other important book collections are housed in university libraries.

Economy

The great income from the petroleum industry led to rapid growth of the entire Iranian economy in the 1960s and 1970s. The influx of foreign capital and the establishment of new industries slowed dramatically, however, due to turmoil proceeding the Islamic revolution in the late 1970s. Already disrupted by the revolution, economic activity was further dampened by war with Iraq and a decline in oil prices in the mid-1980s. Heavily dependent on oil exports for revenue, the government initiated austerity measures in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, improved relations with Western nations and opportunities for economic exchange with newly independent Central Asian republics have broadened Iran's economic prospects. Gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $90 billion in the mid-1990s, and was growing at a rate of about 5 percent a year.

Labor

The labor force in Iran was estimated at 15.4 million people in the mid-1990s. At the time of the 1986 census, about 30 percent of those employed were working in agriculture, forestry, or fishing; manufacturing and industry, including a large share working in construction, employed 26 percent; and services employed 44 percent. Unemployment was estimated to be as high as 30 percent in the early 1990s, while a shortage of skilled workers was reported.

Agriculture

Under a land-reform program begun in Iran in the 1950s, about 800,000 hectares (about 2 million acres) were redistributed among peasant farmers. Most of the better farmland is in the north, south, and west. In the early 1990s the annual production of Iran's principal crops included about 10.2 million metric tons of wheat, 3.7 million metric tons of barley, 2.8 million metric tons of potatoes, 2.5 million metric tons of rice, and 1.7 million metric tons of grapes. The principal cash crop is fresh and dried fruit, which accounted for 30 percent of non-petroleum export earnings in the early 1990s. Other important crops included sugar beets, sugarcane, vegetables, pulses, maize, tea, tobacco, oilseeds, and pistachio nuts. Livestock on farms included an estimated 6.9 million cattle, 1.9 million asses, 45 million sheep, 23.5 million goats, and 170 million chickens.

Forestry and Fishing

Because of concern over excessive cutting, commercial lumbering in Iran was not expanded during the 1970s. Annual production remained at approximately 6 million cu m (about 212 million cu ft) throughout the decade, rising to 6.8 million cu m (240 million cu ft) in the early 1990s. Commercial fishing is important to the Iranian economy, and annual catches showed a steady increase through the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea yield carp and related species, herring, Caspian shad, longtail tuna, and whitefish. Annual production was about 277,400 metric tons in the early 1990s. Iranian caviar (sturgeon eggs) is considered among the best in the world.

Mining

Iran is noted for the productionof petroleum. The principal oil fields, located at thehead of the Persian Gulf in the southwestern region, areconsidered among the richest in the world. The NationalPetrochemical Company operates the oil industry, which wasnationalized in 1951. About 1.3 billion barrels of oil wereproduced annually in the early 1990s; about 46.5 billion cu m(about 1.6 trillion cu ft) of natural gas and about 1.5 millionmetric tons of coal were produced annually in the early 1990s.Petroleum output dropped in the late 1970s and early 1980s, firstas part of an effort to keep oil prices from declining, thenbecause the principal oil-producing regions were the scene ofwarfare with Iraq; production was increasing as of the early1990s. Much of the oil is usually exported by supertankers loadedat facilities on Kharg Island in the Persian Gulf. Substantial quantities of iron ore, chromite, lead, zinc, copper, and manganese are also produced in Iran.

Manufacturing

Large-scale manufacturing in Iran developed during the 1970s. Major products include textiles (especially cotton and wool from the E s fah a n area, wool from Tabr ì z, and silk from the M a zandar a n region), processed food (particularly sugar refining and vegetable oil production), construction materials, nonelectrical machinery, iron and steel, and petrochemicals. One of the world's largest petroleum refineries, located in A b a d a n, suffered severe war damage in the early 1980s. Iran is also known for its finely crafted rugs.

Energy

About 88 percent of Iran's electricity is generated in thermal plants burning principally natural gas, and almost all the rest is produced in hydroelectric facilities. In the early 1990s Iran had an installed electricity-generating capacity of some 15.6 million kilowatts, and annual production was about 43.6 billion kilowatt-hours.

Transportation

In the early 1990s passenger cars in Iran numbered nearly 2 million, and commercial vehicles totaled about 925,000. The country was served by about 153,327 km (about 95,273 mi) of roads, of which 34 percent were paved. In addition, Iran had approximately 4847 km (about 3012 mi) of operated railroad track. Major Iranian ports on the Caspian Sea include Bandar-e Anzal ì (Bandar-e Pahlav ì ) and Bandar-e Torkeman (Bandar-e Sh a h). The principal non-oil commercial port is Bandar-e Shah ì d Raj a ' ì , opened in the early 1980s. Other Persian Gulf ports include Khorramshahr (closed during the war with Iraq), Bandar-e Khomeyn ì (Bandar-e Sh a hp u r), and Bandar-e 'Abb a s as well as the oil-shipping facilities on Kharg Island. Iran Air, the state-run airline that was formed in 1962, operates both domestic and international flights; the main airports serve Tehr a n and A b a d a n.

Communications

Postal, telegraph, and telephoneservices, as well as radio and television broadcasting, areadministered by the Iranian government. Approximately 2.3 milliontelephones were in use in the early 1990s; radios numbered morethan 13.8 million and television sets about 3.8 million. Nearlyall the nation's daily newspapers are published in Tehran. Dailies with large circulations include Kayhan and Ettelaat, both published in Tehr a n.

Currency and Banking

The Iranian unit of currency isthe rial, which is divided into 100 dinar (3000 rials equal U.S.$1; 1996). The Bank Markazi, established in 1960 and operated by the government, is the bank of issue. Commercial banking, nationalized and reorganized in 1979, includes some eight major banks. To conform with Islamic code, most interest on accounts was abolished in the mid-1980s and replaced with a commission system.

Foreign Trade

More than 90 percent of Iran's export earnings derive typically from sales of crude petroleum and petroleum products; other exports include carpets, fruits, nuts, and animal hides. Most of the country's imports consist of manufactured goods such as machinery, iron and steel, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and refined petroleum products. In the early 1990s Iran's exports earned $15.5 billion and imports cost $23.7 billion. Principal purchasers of Iranian exports were Japan, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg (which constitute a single trading entity), Spain, and Germany. By far the leading supplier of products for Iran was Germany, followed by Japan, the United Arab Emirates, Italy, Turkey, Belgium, Argentina, Australia, and the Netherlands.

Government

Iran's constitutional monarchy,founded in 1906, was ended in 1979. In the same year a newconstitution established an Islamic republic in which principlesof Islam were to be the foundation for social, political, andeconomic relations. A religious leader, called the wali faqih, oversees the operation of the government.

Executive

The chief executive and head of state of Iran is a president, who is popularly elected to a four-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, who must be confirmed in office by the national parliament; the president also approves the prime minister's cabinet.

Legislature

Legislative authority in Iran isvested in a unicameral parliament called the Majlis. Its 270 members, popularly elected for terms of four years, can dismiss the country's president by a no-confidence vote. Laws enacted by the Majlis must be approved by the Council of Guardians, who ensure accordance with Islamic code and the constitution. All citizens age 15 and older are entitled to vote.

Judiciary

The highest regular tribunal in Iran is the Supreme Court, the president of which is appointed by the wali faqih. A legal system based on Islamic law was introduced as part of the Islamic revolution of 1979, and courts established prior to the revolution were later abolished. The law in Iran provides for strict adherence to Islamic precepts; more than 100 offenses carry the possibility of a death sentence.

Local Government

Iran consists of 24 provinces (ustans), which are divided into 195 counties and 500 districts; districts are subdivided into villages and municipalities. Provincial and district officials are appointed by the central government; municipalities elect their own mayors.

Political Parties

After the 1979 revolution, the Islamic Republican Party and its allies dominated the national legislature. In 1987, however, the IRP was disbanded, and no political parties were allowed to contest the 1988 parliamentary elections. Political parties were also banned in the 1992 parliamentary balloting, but two rival Islamic factions were recognized; Ruhaniyat, the more reform-minded faction, defeated the hard-line faction, Ruhaniyoun.

Social Services

Health care in Iran is overseen by the national department of health. Programs have been undertaken to combat tuberculosis, trachoma, and other diseases. Opium addiction, once a major problem, has been virtually eradicated, as has malaria.

Defense

A two-year period of military service is required of all male citizens of Iran age 18 and older. In the early 1990s the regular Iranian armed forces had 473,000 active members, including an army of 320,000, navy of 18,000, air force of 15,000, and about 120,000 in the Revolutionary Guard, which maintains internal security.

International Organizations

Iran is a charter member of the United Nations and also belongs to the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries .

History

For the history of Iran before theMuslim conquest, see Persia .

The fall of the Sassanid Empire toMuslim Arabs in 641 changed Iran for all time. The lands wereincorporated into the caliphate, ruled at first from Medina andlater from Damascus and Baghdad. The old Zoroastrian religion, although officially tolerated by the new Muslim rulers, could not withstand the force, backed by the state authority, of the new Muslim faith; except for a few thousand adherents, who have persisted even to the present, the number of Zoroastrians gradually decreased, and the religion virtually disappeared. Iran was henceforth a Muslim country.

Cultural influences, however, were not all one-sided; the old Iranian traditions also exerted their fascination over the new rulers. The Umayyad caliphs at Damascus imitated Sassanid court etiquette, and the succeeding Abbasids at Baghd a d were even more enmeshed, giving up the modest Arab ways of the desert for the luxury of Eastern palace life.

Turks and Mongols

In the mid-11th century Iran wasconquered by the Seljuk Turks under Togrul Beg, and during theensuing four centuries, it was dominated successively by theSeljuks, the Mongols under Genghis Khan, Tamerlane and his Mongol hordes, and the Turkmens.The rule of the Turkmens was overthrown by Ismail I, who claimeddescent from Ali, the fourth caliph. He was regarded as a saintby the Iranians and proclaimed himself shah, marking the foundingof the Safavid dynasty, which governed Iran from 1501 to 1722,and the establishment of the Shiite doctrine as the officialIranian religion.Ismail's reign marked the beginning of a conflict with OttomanTurkey that lasted more than a century and led to the capture ofBaghdad in 1623 by Shah Abbas I , the greatest of the Safavid rulers. The reign of Abbas is also notable for the commencement of trade with the English East India Company. During the century following his reign, Iran steadily declined, and in 1722 Iran was conquered by an Afghan army under Mir Mahmud and the Safavids were overthrown.

European Intervention

Two years later Russia and Turkey, taking advantage of the confusion within Iran, concluded an agreement for its dismemberment. Within those provinces not seized by the two powers, an Iranian national army was formed under a warrior chief who drove out the Afghans in 1729 and ascended the throne in 1736 as Nadir Shah. Two years later he invaded India, capturing and sacking Delhi in 1739. Russia, meanwhile, had evacuated its Iranian conquests, and Nadir later succeeded in freeing Iran from all foreign occupation by driving out the Turks. His death in 1747 was followed by a period of relative peace and prosperity during the Zand dynasty, which ended in 1794, when Agha Muhammad Khan, a cruel ruler, proclaimed himself shah and founded the Qajar dynasty, which lasted from 1794 to 1925. Muhammad Khan was succeeded in 1797 by his nephew Fath Ali Shah, during whose reign the British were allowed to extend their influence over Iranian trade and finances.

The 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by the struggle between Britain and Russia for control in Iran. The British warred against and defeated the Iranians in 1856 and 1857 and compelled them to evacuate Afghanistan and to recognize its independence. During the 1880s the Russians gradually established a sphere of influence in northern Iran, and Britain gained control in the Persian Gulf area. Between 1900 and 1902 the Russian government made substantial loans to Iran, receiving as security all the country's customs receipts except those of the Gulf ports. In 1901 the British were granted a 60-year concession to exploit the petroleum resources of Iran.

Nationalism and Constitutional Government

The rise of foreign influence in Iran and the weakness and corruption of the country's rulers led in the early 20th century to the development of a nationalist movement that demanded the establishment of a constitutional government. In 1906 the reigning shah, Muzaffar al-Din, was forced by popular demand to convene the first Majlis, or national assembly, which drew up a liberal constitution. His son and successor, Muhammad Ali, attempted to destroy the constitutional movement by force, but was defeated and deposed; his 12-year-old son was placed on the throne as Ahmad Shah, and a regency was set up. In 1911 the American financier William Morgan Shuster arrived in Iran at the invitation of the Majlis and was given full power to reorganize the national finances. His reforms were, however, frustrated by the hostility of Russia; Shuster was dismissed, and Russian power subsequently became dominant in Iran.

Rise of the Pahlavi Dynasty

Iran was neutral during World WarI (1914-1918), but was the site of several battles betweenBritish and Russian allies and the Turks over the control of itsoil fields. In 1919 Iran signed an agreement whereby Britain wasto exercise controlling influence in Iranian affairs, but theMajlis refused to ratify it. Two years later the British began towithdraw their forces from the country. Soon afterward, Reza Shah Pahlavi, commander of an Iranian cossack force,established a new independent government, with himself asminister of war. He became prime minister in 1923 and two yearslater was elected shah by the Majlis, which had deposed AhmadShah, the last of the Qajar dynasty. During his reign thejudiciary was modernized, transportation and communicationfacilities were improved, and a broad program of Westernizationwas begun. One decree ordered the Sunni Muslim population to wearEuropean-style hats instead of their traditional fezzes. Most ofthe Sunni obeyed without protest; a minority, led by Muslimclergy, rioted, and several were killed. The government nextabolished all feudal titles and began a long-range program forthe economic modernization of the country. Early in 1936 theshah's wife and daughters appeared in public without veils,violating an ancient national tradition. Thereafter, most Iranianwomen gradually stopped wearing their veils. In 1936 Iran signeda treaty of friendship and nonaggression with Iraq, Turkey, andAfghanistan.

World War II (1939-1945)

At the beginning of World War II, Germany, Turkey, Great Britain, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) attempted unsuccessfully to form alliances with Iran. In 1941, however, both Great Britain and the USSR occupied areas of the country to protect the oil fields from possible German seizure. As a result of the Allied invasion, all Axis nationals were expelled, all Axis consulates and legations were closed, the Allies assumed control of all Iranian communication facilities, and Reza Shah Pahlavi, who had been friendly to Axis interests, abdicated.

The shah was succeeded by his son,Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi , who adopted a pro-Allied policy and granted the parliament's demand for liberal reforms. In January 1942, Iran, Great Britain, and the USSR signed a treaty guaranteeing Anglo-Soviet respect for Iranian territorial integrity and military aid to fulfill this pledge. The Allies also agreed to consult the Iranian government on all economic, political, and military measures affecting the domestic policy of the country, to withdraw the occupation forces as soon as possible, and to provide economic assistance.

By 1943, the USSR and GreatBritain, with the assistance of United States military forces andlend-lease funds, had made extensive improvements in Iran'stransportation facilities in order to strengthen the country'susefulness in the transfer of military supplies to the Sovietfighting front. Iran complained, however, that the USSR hadcompletely isolated its occupation zone from outside contact. TheSoviet government defended its action by explaining that it wasprotecting itself against possible Anglo-American expansion inIran. This dispute was resolved in November 1943 at the Tehran Conference attended by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill of Great Britain, and Premier Joseph Stal.